【英文翻译版56】理查德·伯克：《道德形而上学奠基》

英文文稿+中文翻译 

Zachary Davis: For me, acting morally means doing what is right. But how do I know what is right? How do I know what is moral? In the 18th and early 19th century, there was a school of philosophy called common sense philosophy. They had an easy answer to this question.

扎卡里·戴维斯：在我看来，做事合乎道德意味着做正确的事。但我如何知道什么是正确的、什么是道德的？18世纪至19世纪初，有一个哲学流派叫常识哲学。他们针对这个问题给出了一个简单的答案。

Richard Bourke: The notion was that basically our sensibility or the way in which our feelings have been constructed for us enables us to be moral creatures.

理查德·伯克：他们认为，我们的情感，或者说我们情感形成的方式让我们可以成为富有道德的生物。

Zachary Davis: That is University of Cambridge History professor Richard Bourke. According to the moral philosophers, we already know what is moral and what isn’t, just by virtue of being alive. If we’re repulsed by the idea of stealing from our neighbors, then that means it isn’t moral.

扎克里·戴维斯：这位是剑桥大学历史学教授理查德·伯克。按照道德哲学家的观点，我们与生俱来就很清楚什么是道德的、什么是不道德的。如果我们对偷邻居东西这种念头感到反感，那就意味着这么做不道德。

Zachary Davis: But what happens when two people don’t feel the same about the morality of an action? What if one person’s view is that stealing is moral if you steal from the rich and give it to the poor? But in another person’s view, stealing is immoral no matter what?

扎克里·戴维斯：但如果两个人对某个行为的道德判断不一样，该怎么办？比如，一个人觉得劫富济贫是高尚之举，另一个人觉得不论何种偷盗行为都不道德。这样该怎么办呢？

Zachary Davis: For 18th century Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant, this was a problem. In his 1785 book Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, he set out to understand how morality could be a universal law, something that didn’t change from person to person.

扎克里·戴维斯：在18世纪的普鲁士哲学家伊曼努尔·康德看来，这个问题值得深究。在1785年出版的《道德形而上学奠基》一书中，他探究了道德如何可以成为一种普遍的、不会因人而异的法则。

Richard Bourke: The really basic thought of Kant is if you're going to have morals, surely we have to distinguish this from mere taste or whim. I mean, it can't be the case of “I don't happen to like immoral behaviors”. It must be, Kant wants to say, that these are absolutely unacceptable, or to put it another way, a moral obligation is necessitated. It must be the case. It's a binding norm, an obligation in the original sense of the word. And therefore, it's almost like a law. I mean, it is an absolute restriction on behavior which says “this is wrong”.

理查德·伯克：康德的基本思想是，如果你要讲道德，你就有必要将它和单纯的偏好和心血来潮的念头区别开来。我的意思是，某个人绝不可以只是“碰巧不喜欢做不道德的事”而已。康德想说的是，不道德的事是绝对不被人接受的，或者换句话说，必须要有一种道德义务。情况绝对是这样的。这是一种有约束力的规范，一种原原本本的义务。所以它近似于一条法律。我的意思是，它对人们的言行举止做了绝对限制，指出哪些行为是错的。

Zachary Davis: Welcome to Writ Large, a podcast about how books change the world. I’m Zachary Davis. In each episode, I talk with one of the world’s leading scholars about one book that changed the course of history. For this episode, I sat down with Professor Richard Bourke to discuss Immanuel Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals.

扎卡里·戴维斯：欢迎收听：100本改变你和世界的书，在这里我们为大家讲述改变世界的书籍。我是扎卡里·戴维斯。每一集，我都会和一位世界顶尖学者探讨一本影响历史进程的书。在本集，我和理查德·伯克教授一起探讨伊曼努尔·康德的《道德形而上学奠基》。

Richard Bourke: Immanuel Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, and he spent his whole life there. He died in 1804, so it was a reasonably long life.

理查德·伯克：1724年，伊曼努尔·康德出生于哥尼斯堡，一生基本上都在那儿度过。他于1804年去世，可以说是非常长寿了。

Zachary Davis: Königsberg was part of the German kingdom of Prussia. It was a somewhat isolated place in the sense that it wasn’t physically connected to the rest of Prussia. But Königsberg was an important trading seaport that connected Europe to Russia, and for Kant, it was a great place—so great, that he never left! He never travelled abroad and instead spent his entire life in his native city.

扎克里·戴维斯：哥尼斯堡位于德国普鲁士。这里与外界有些隔绝，因为它和普鲁士的其他主要地区并不接壤。但哥尼斯堡是一座连接着欧洲和俄国的重要贸易海港，也是康德心目中最伟大的城市——他这么喜欢这里，甚至从未离开过。他从未出国游历，几乎一生都待在家乡。

Richard Bourke: He's born into more or less what we might, since the 19th century, call a working class family. That's to say, it wasn't at all elevated. He went to an ordinary school to begin with, but his talents were spotted—his intellectual talents, that is—were spotted by a minister in the church and that enabled him to get a scholarship to a high school, gymnasium as it's called in Germany, and really a classical gymnasium, and that was the Collegium Fridericianum.

理查德·伯克：按19世纪以来的说法看，康德可以说是出生在一个工人阶级家庭，家世并不显赫。他一开始就读于一所普通学校，但教会的一位牧师发现他才思过人，于是他获得了奖学金，成功地进了高中。这是一所非常好的德国高中，名叫腓特烈学院。

Zachary Davis: The early part of Kant’s career is, well, unremarkable.

扎克里·戴维斯：康德在职业生涯的早期并不怎么引人注目。

Richard Bourke: I mean, he starts off really as a natural scientist and metaphysician. And he remains a metaphysician, developing theories of knowledge and so on and so forth. But his first great work doesn't appear till 1781. And that's The Critique of Pure Reason.

理查德·伯克：他一开始就研究着自然科学和形而上学，之后他一直继续研究形而上学，不断构建知识理论。不过直到1781年，他的第一部伟大作品才问世。这就是《纯粹理性批判》。

Zachary Davis: In The Critique of Pure Reason, Kant explores the fundamental nature and limits of reality. For more information on this text, you can listen to our episode with Harvard professor Michael Rosen where we discuss this book in detail. But long before he wrote The Critique of Pure Reason, Kant subscribed to the philosophies of his day, including common sense philosophy.

扎克里·戴维斯：在《纯粹理性批判》中，康德探讨了现实的基本性质和局限性。如果想要进一步了解这本书，您可以收听我们之前采访哈佛大学教授迈克尔·罗森的那期节目，当时我们详细的讨论了这本书。不过在写《纯粹理性批判》很久之前，康德就已经认同了当时的哲学，包括常识哲学。

Richard Bourke: At that point, Kant was prepared to credit the idea that the standards of moral behavior were to be found in sensibility or feeling. So, it wasn't reason that gave us moral norms, but rather it was the way in which our sensibility was constituted. So, in other words, one doesn't listen to one's reason to tell one that murder is bad. One feels revolted by the prospect.

理查德·伯克：那时，康德已经准备相信道德行为的标准需要从情感中去挖掘。这种观点认为，带给我们道德规范的并不是理性，而是我们情感的产生方式。换句话说，一个人并非基于理性才认为谋杀有违道德，而是一想到谋杀，就觉得内心作呕。

Zachary Davis: According to common sense philosophy, this is...common sense! This philosophy was a more emotionally driven way of reasoning. Moral philosophers believed we could form norms about moral behavior by consulting our own feelings. If you feel bad about an action, it must be immoral. These ideas were championed by influential Scottish Enlightenment thinkers such as Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, and Adam Smith.

扎克里·戴维斯：按照常识哲学看，这就是常识。常识哲学是一种更注重情感的推理论证方式。道德哲学家认为，我们可以聆听内心的感受，从而形成关于道德行为的规范。如果你讨厌某种行为，那它一定是不道德的。倡导这些思想的是一些富有影响力的苏格兰启蒙思想家，如弗兰西斯·哈奇森、大卫·休谟和亚当·斯密。

Richard Bourke: So, it is very much one’s sensibility responding. But actually, Kant relatively soon abandoned that opposition, comprehensively to never to return to it, and became, I suppose, what one would say, what one would call “a moral rationalist”. And his commitment thereto is represented by his first great work of moral philosophy, which is the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals which is published in 1785.

理查德·伯克：所以，这些人看重的是一个人情感上的反应。但很快，康德就不再信奉这种观念，此后也一直没有再相信过。他成了人们口中的“道德理性主义者”。他的研究成果随后汇成了他的第一本道德哲学巨著，那就是1785年出版的《道德形而上学奠基》。

Zachary Davis: In Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant departs from the idea that morals can be based on feelings, habits, and customs. He believed that this way of thinking was too subjective and would lead to too many competing morals. I might feel bad about an action, but what if you didn’t? Whose feelings were more moral? Kant was in search of something more concrete, and to get there, he believed we must consult our reason.

扎克里·戴维斯：在《道德形而上学奠基》中，康德首先批驳了一个观点，那就是道德可以基于情感、习惯和风俗。他认为这一观点太过主观，会带来很多互相矛盾的道德规范。我可能会对某个行为感到不舒服，但如果你不这么觉得呢？那么谁的感觉更道德？为了找到道德规范，康德探求了更为具体的东西。他认为我们必须依靠我们的理性。

Richard Bourke: And the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals is laying out, really, as it says, the groundwork, grundlagen, a laying of the foundations for moral thought indebted to pure rationality.

理查德·伯克：《道德形而上学奠基》这本书就像它的名字所说的那样，将道德理念奠定在了纯粹理性的基础之上。

Zachary Davis: So, what did people believe about morality before Kant, or what's the long story of where our moral ideas come from?

扎克里·戴维斯：在康德之前，人们对道德持有何种看法呢？或者说，在这之前我们对道德的看法从何而来？

Richard Bourke: Now this is the essential question. I would say if I were to sketch the situation in broad outlines, that Kant is responding to, roughly speaking, three rival theories. One of them begins with the ancients. And that is the idea that if you want to know what virtue is, you must ask the question “what is happiness?” All ancient schools of philosophy, one way or another, connected virtue to happiness. Aristotle did. The Stoics did. Epicureanism did.

理查德·伯克：这个问题很重要。如果要我概括的话，简而言之，康德所回应的是三种与之对立的理论。其中一种理论发源于古代。这种理论认为，如果你想知道什么是美德，你就必须问“什么是幸福”。所有的古代哲学流派，都以这样或那样的方式，将美德与幸福联系在一起。亚里士多德、斯多葛学派和伊壁鸠鲁学派都是这么认为的。

Richard Bourke: So, that's a sort of staple belief. If you want to inquire what the good life for the human being is, you must ask, you know, “what is the happy life for them?” So, goodness and happiness are conflated.

理查德・伯克：这就是他们的主要观点。如果你想探究何为人类的高尚生活，你就必须问“何为他们的幸福生活”。就这样，道德与幸福被混为一谈。

Zachary Davis: This is the first theory of morals that Kant deviates from in his text.

扎克里·戴维斯：这是康德在书中批驳的第一个道德理论。

Richard Bourke: Second of all, Kant is departing from a, for want of a better term, native tradition of moral thought, a German tradition of moral thought. And prior to Kant, there had been a sort of tradition of constructing moral duties in terms of thinking about what was prescribed by reason. So, it was rationalist, but it was about how reason could tell us to perfect ourselves.

理查德·伯克：第二，康德背离了本土的道德思想传统，德国的道德思想传统，暂时没有更好的说法，所以姑且这么说。在康德之前，已经有一种传统，即通过思考理性规定的内容来构建道德义务。所以，它是理性主义的，但它关注的是理性如何告诉我们完善自己。

Zachary Davis: Both of these theories were goal oriented: the first aimed toward the goal of happiness, and the second aimed toward the goal of human perfection. If you are working toward those goals, the philosophies state, then you are acting morally. The third theory was common sense—the idea that our feelings enabled us to be moral.

扎卡里·戴维斯：这两种学说都是以目的为导向的：第一种以幸福为目的，第二种以人的完善为目的。两种学说认为，如果你为实现目的而努力，那么你的行为就是道德的。第三种学说基于常识，认为我们的情感使我们成为道德的人。

Richard Bourke: The best way of putting it is our sensibility was designed for morality. So, we'll see the theological component there: there's a design element. We were designed for this. But the effective point is that our passions dispose us to benevolence of the foundation of morality.

理查德·伯克：最恰当的解释是，我们的感觉是为道德而设计的。我们可以看到这里面的神学成分：有一个设计的元素。我们是被神设计出来奉行道德的。但重要的一点是我们的热情使我们相信仁慈这种道德基础。

Zachary Davis: These were the three main theories of morality in Kant’s time. But Kant didn’t feel completely comfortable with any of them. He argued they were all essentially arbitrary.

扎卡里·戴维斯：这些是康德所处时代的三大道德学说，但康德无法完全赞同其中的任何一种，他认为它们本质上都缺乏一个一致的标准。

Richard Bourke: If you try to say that virtue resides in happiness, well, then, of course, happiness is in the eyes of the beholder. So, your happiness is not my happiness. So, how can this be a fundamental norm of behavior?

理查德·伯克：如果你想说道德存在于幸福中，而幸福是一种个人的主观感受。所以，你的幸福不是我的幸福。那么，这怎么能成为基本的行为规范呢？

Zachary Davis: Kant wanted a law of morality. Something similar to the laws of nature, or the laws of mathematics, or the Biblical Ten Commandments.

扎卡里·戴维斯：康德想要找到的道德律，类似自然法则、数学定律或者《圣经》十诫。

Richard Bourke: The phraseology of the Commandments gives you the flavor of it. Thou shalt not do X. Thou shalt not abuse thy neighbor. I mean, so this is not, as it were, something that you fancy not doing. This is something which you absolutely must not do. So, once you have this criterion of absolutely not, an absolute injunction to or an absolute injunction to avoid, and then you're dealing with something which is beyond contingency, beyond the whimsical differences which you might have about happiness. There are for Kant rules or principles which would stipulate what correct behavior is. And so to that extent, since he's focusing on that element, he's departing from all-comers.

理查德·伯克：十诫的措辞让你感受到了它的严格之处。你不可做什么什么，你不可辱骂你的邻居。这些并不是你想不做就不做的事，而是你绝对不能做的事情。所以，一旦你有了这个绝对不能做的标准，一个绝对的禁令或一个绝对的避免的标准，这就是超越偶然性的，超越你对于幸福的突发奇想。对康德来说，有一些规则或原则规定了什么是正确的行为。既然他专注于这个要素，他就和其他所有人的观点相左。

Zachary Davis: These previous philosophies focused on the goal of morality. Moral behavior aimed toward happiness or perfection or a good feeling. But Kant turns his attention away from the goal and toward the motive, or reason, for action. He believed the motive was what defined moral behavior.

扎卡里·戴维斯：康德之前的学说关注的是道德的目的。道德行为的目的是幸福，或者完善自我，或者一种良好的感觉。但康德把注意力从目的转向了行为的动机或者说理由。他认为动机定义了道德行为。

Richard Bourke: If you want to want to understand the source of standards of morality, what Kant called “the supreme principle of morality”, you must look to motive. You must look to what has prompted you to undertake this behavior. So, it's not the outcomes, it's where that action comes from.

理查德·伯克：如果你想了解道德标准的来源，也就是康德所说的“道德的最高原则”，你必须留意动机。你得思考是什么促使你采取了某种行为。这不是结果，而是行为的源头。

Zachary Davis: Okay, so the motivation is a real grounding that's universal. So, could you tell us about what the book is like, kind of as a whole?

扎卡里·戴维斯：所以动机是一个真正普遍存在的基础。那你能给我们讲讲这本书的大体内容吗？

Richard Bourke: It's not a very long work, but it does have this characteristic Kantian style. No one could argue that it's an easy read. It's a mixture of dense and complicated, but it is brief. Its structure is as follows: there's a preface just setting out what kind of approach to moral philosophy he's developing, and there he basically says, “Well, here I'm going to focus on what our reason can tell us about morals. I’m not going to be concerned with anything empirical.”

理查德·伯克：这本书篇幅不是很长，但它带有典型的康德风格。没人会说这本书读起来容易，它的内容复杂，信息密集，但是篇幅短。它的结构是这样的：康德先用序言阐述了他用什么方法研究道德哲学，序言大体就是说“在这本书里，我会专注于人类的理性和道德的关系。我不会关注任何经验性的东西”。

Zachary Davis: Ethics and morals can be broken down into two parts, empirical and non-empirical. If knowledge about something is empirical, it is based on learned experience through our senses. Non empirical knowledge comes from theory and pure logic. When it comes to ethics and morals, Kant wants to focus on the nonempirical. He is interested in using reason to learn about morals.

扎卡里·戴维斯：伦理和道德可以分成两部分，经验性的和非经验性的。经验性的知识基于我们通过感官学到的经验。非经验性的知识来自于理论和纯粹逻辑。研究伦理和道德时，康德想关注非经验性的东西。他对通过理性了解道德感兴趣。

Richard Bourke: So, he’s starting with what he calls “pure inquiry” or “rational inquiry” into the foundation of morals. That's essentially the preface. And then it's divided into three parts. And those three parts are as follows: first of all, in part one, what is our common understanding of what moral value is or wherein moral value lies? And he wants to say, despite the fact that he's departing from all precedent traditions, you, me and everyone else actually do have a good, strong sense of what the sources of moral value are or what the source really, I should say, is.

理查德·伯克：所以，康德从他所说的“纯粹探究”或“理性探究”切入研究道德的基础。这就是序言的大致内容。后面分为三个部分。在第一部分中，康德探讨我们对道德价值是什么或者道德价值在哪的共同理解。他想说，尽管他背离了以往的一切传统，但是你、我和其他人其实都对道德价值的来源是什么有一种强烈的意识。

Zachary Davis: Like the common sense philosophers, Kant believes all humans have an inherent sense of morality. That’s what he discusses in part one.

扎卡里·戴维斯：康德和支持常识学说的哲学家一样，相信所有人都有与生俱来的道德感。这是他在书的第一部分探讨的内容。

Richard Bourke: Then part two is an analytical development of that core insight. That is to say, philosophically, he picks apart the content of the concept of morality, elucidating that into ever more refined components. And it's at that stage of the book that he develops his formulations for the categorical imperative, as it's called.

理查德·伯克：书的第二部分是对这一核心观点的进一步分析。也就是说，康德从哲学角度把道德这一概念的内容拆解，把它细分成几部分进行阐释。正是在这一部分，他提出了所谓的绝对命令。

Zachary Davis: Kant’s categorical imperative is also known as the supreme principle of morality. According to Kant, we can measure our actions against the supreme principle of morality to see if we are acting from a place of morality.

扎卡里·戴维斯：康德的绝对命令也被称为道德的最高原则。康德认为，我们可以用道德的最高原则来衡量我们的行为，看我们的行为是否道德。

Richard Bourke: His question now in part three is, “is this actually humanly possible?” So, what people forget about Kant altogether as a moral thinker is the massive dimension of skepticism which underpins his inquiry.

理查德·伯克：在书的第三部分，康德提出了一个问题：“这种道德的最高原则是人类力所能及的吗？”人们完全忘了，作为一个道德思想家，怀疑的精神支撑着康德的探究。

Richard Bourke: Now, in the end, he's not a skeptic because his answer is going to be not only is this this possible, but actually we must believe it. But so, just to clarify, he does believe it's possible, moral action, and he does believe that we must credit this possibility. But he thinks this is an enormous struggle for the human being, and we are more often than not failing as moral creatures.

理查德·伯克：但毕竟康德不是一个怀疑论者，因为在书的最后，他给出的答案是，我们不仅力所能及，也必须相信这一点。他确实这样认为，但他也认为我们必须付出巨大努力才能做到，所以才会经常失败。

Richard Bourke: We are living in a veil of corruption, and we are perpetually tempted by the antithesis of a moral willing, and our moral will, if I can put it that way, is almost in all cases overcome by the obverse of the moral will, which is the life of sensibility, or what we would just think of us as temptation, you know, the desires of pleasure, you know.

理查德·伯克：我们活在堕落的阴影中，永远被道德意愿的对立面所诱惑。或许可以说，我们的道德意愿几乎无论何时都会被道德意愿的对立面压制，这个对立面就是感性的生活，或者说我们认为的诱惑，对快乐的渴望。

Zachary Davis: In other words, Kant believes we all know how to act morally, but it’s almost impossible for us to do so, because when we think we’re acting morally, we’re tricking ourselves.

扎卡里·戴维斯：换句话说，康德认为我们都知道什么样的行为是道德的，但几乎不可能做到，因为当我们认为自己的行为道德时，我们是在欺骗自己。

Richard Bourke: So, our ability to talk ourselves into the idea that we are serving the good will when really we are servicing what Kant calls “the dear self”. That is to say, your own subjectivity, which subtly insinuates itself into your ambitions to pursue the good and dominates your will. In other words, you know, you say to yourself that you're doing this out of good motives, but actually, lo and behold, coincidentally, it's serving your own self-interest very handsomely indeed. And I think that is standard human behavior. We do that all the time.

理查德·伯克：我们能说服自己，让自己相信自己的行为是出于善意，但实际上我们是在为康德所说的“亲爱的自我”服务。也就是说，你自己的主体意识巧妙地将自己渗透到你追求善的野心中，并且支配你的意志。换句话说，你告诉自己，你这么做出发点是好的，但实际上，它恰巧很好地服务于你自己的私利。我认为这是人类的常见行为。我们一直都在这样做。

Zachary Davis: This is the key difference between Kant and the philosophers who came before him. Instead of looking at the goal of an action, he is looking to the motive as an indicator of morality.

扎卡里·戴维斯：这是康德和他之前的哲学家之间的关键区别。他不关注行为的目的，而是把动机作为道德的指标。

Richard Bourke: But nonetheless, there is somewhere, let's just say in the human soul, in the human psyche, in reason, there is a jewel. And that jewel is really the possibility of subordinating one's will to purely motivated actions.

理查德·伯克：人类的灵魂中，心智中，理性中，有一颗宝石。这颗宝石其实就是让人的意志服从于纯粹实践动机的可能性。

Zachary Davis: So, it is possible to act morally. But rarely do we act in this way.

扎卡里·戴维斯：所以，行为道德是可能实现的，但我们很少做到。

Richard Bourke: And another final, incredibly important dimension to Kant’s thinking is its historical dimension. His interest is really in, given the enormous struggle that we face in acting morally, what's notable is it's necessary to believe that we're getting better at it.

理查德·伯克：康德思想的另一个非常重要的维度就是它的历史维度。他感兴趣的点是，虽然我们要付出巨大努力才能做到行为道德，但我们有必要相信我们会做得更好。

Richard Bourke: So, he's very much interested in the historical development—or potential historical development—of human moral aptitudes, because in the short term, we're not doing well at all. And by the way, his perspective here is absolutely world historical. That's to say, the scheme on which he imagines human morality developing is not merely the thousands of years, I mean, it's the many millennia, you know? So, he very much projects this forward because he thinks we've been doing this for millennia, and look how bad we're doing!

理查德·伯克：康德对于人类道德能力的历史发展，或者说潜在的历史发展很感兴趣，因为从短期来看我们做得很不好。顺便提一句，他这里的视角是绝对的世界历史视角。也就是说，他想象的人类道德发展不只跨越几千年，而是以一千年为一个时间单位。所以，他会向前推算，因为他认为人类已经这样几千年了，看我们做得多么糟糕!

Zachary Davis: Back to his motivation. He, he doesn't believe morality can be based on contingency, on individual whim, on preference, on sensibility. He wants a firmer foundation, one, I presume that would be unchanged over time. Maybe our ability to live up to that moral law can change, but like the law itself should be more firm. How does he solve that problem of, I guess, relativism?

扎卡里·戴维斯：我们再回到他的动机。他认为道德不能建立在偶发事件、个人的一时冲动、偏好或者感觉的基础上。他想找到一个更坚实的基础，我想，他想找到一个不会随着时间的推移而变化的基础。也许我们达到道德律要求的能力可以改变，但是道德律本身应该更加坚实。康德是怎么解决这个相对主义问题的呢？

Richard Bourke: Yes. Well, Kant says in the end, actually, we would all agree that if it's to be a moral norm, it must be normative and therefore it has to have the shape of a law. It must be an objective law. And in all our requirements of other human beings and expectations, that is what we expect of them, that they would subordinate their wills to, you know, a universalizable norm.

理查德·伯克：没错，在书的最后，康德说，其实我们都认同，道德规范必须是规范性的，因此它必须具有法则的形式，它必须是客观的。在我们对其他人的所有要求和期望中，这就是我们的期望，期望其他人让意志服从于一个可普遍适用的规范。

Richard Bourke: So whilst this in the history of philosophy is a controversial perspective, in the history of human behavior, in a way, it's not. So, the demand for the moral law has always been there, even if, of course, our moral behaviors have clearly changed over time. And I think Kant's point is not that all behaviors remain static, but that there be a tribunal against which one can judge behaviors. So, there must be a foundational standard against which moral duties can be judged.

理查德·伯克：虽然在哲学史中这个观点充满争议，但在人类行为史中，在某种程度上，这并不是一个有争议的观点。即使我们的道德行为随着时间的推移明显发生了变化，对道德律的需求一直都在。我认为康德的观点并不是说所有的行为都是一成不变的，而是说要有一个可以评判行为的标准。所以，必须有一个基础性的标准，据此来判断道德义务。

Zachary Davis: When it comes to understanding morality, Kant wasn’t interested in prescribing what we should do. He wanted a way for us to see if our actions were moral.

扎卡里·戴维斯：在理解道德的时候，康德对规定我们应该做什么并不感兴趣。他只是想找到一种方法让我们明白自己的行为是否道德。

Richard Bourke: And his answer is, “Well, we can secure that only in terms of the supreme principle of morality,” a phrase that I mentioned before. And the supreme principle of morality resides in another principle, the principle of the good will. Kant therefore goes on to explicate what “the goodwill” is. And he says, “Of course, we all have a sense of this.” And that is to say, to give one of his examples, is the example of the merchant or the shopkeeper.

理查德·伯克：康德的答案是：“我们要确保行为道德，就必须遵循道德的最高原则。”我之前提到过这个说法。道德的最高原则源于另一个原则，即善意的原则。因此，康德接着解释了什么是 “善意”。他说：“当然，我们都有这样的意识。”举一个他给的例子，就是商人或店主的例子。

Richard Bourke: The shopkeeper might treat their customers honestly because honesty is the best policy. In other words, because honesty serves the shopkeeper well. So, if I tell you the story about the shopkeeper who did the right thing, but for these crude motives, you would yourself, Kant says, you yourself see, this is not good because it's not done from the goodwill. It's not done out of goodwill. However, if the shopkeeper treats their customers well because it's the right thing to do, then we understand that it's a moral action. So, the goodwill is, as Kant explains it, that action from duty. So, not for the sake of duty, but action from the motive of duty.

理查德·伯克：店主可能诚信对待他的顾客，因为诚信是上策，换句话说，因为诚信对店主有利。如果我跟你说店主做了正确的事情，但是出于丑陋的动机，康德会回应说，你看，店主的行为其实是不道德的，因为店主不是出于善意才这么做的。但是，如果店主善待顾客是因为这么做是对的，那么我们就认为他的行为是道德的。所以，就像康德所解释的那样，善意是出于义务而采取的行为。不是为了义务，而是从义务这个动机出发采取的行为。

Zachary Davis: So, I guess goodwill is doing things for the right reason?

扎卡里·戴维斯：所以，善意是指出于正当理由做一件事吗？

Richard Bourke: Yes.

理查德·伯克：是的。

Zachary Davis: And the right reason is the thing within you know is right?

扎卡里·戴维斯：正当理由是指那些你内心认为正确的事情吗？

Richard Bourke: There's a lot of what you ask. And, of course, this is very complicated. But just to say, just to at least explicate what Kant is on about a bit more clearly, let's go back to another of his examples. So, I said he gives various examples. I gave you the example of the shopkeeper. He then has the example of the naturally sympathetic character.

理查德·伯克：是的。当然，这也是非常复杂的。但为了更清楚地解释康德的观点，我们看看他给的另一个例子。康德举了很多例子。我刚刚说了店主的例子。康德还举了一个例子，考虑一个人生来的性格是否能同情别人。

Richard Bourke: So, if you are, you know, some of us do, we do have different sensibilities. And some people, it gives them pleasure, you know, to distribute gifts. It gives them pleasure to bring people out to dinner, you know, general garrulity and camaraderie and sociability. But, let's say it's a duty, let's agree it's a duty to help others in distress. That's something concrete.

理查德·伯克：你知道，人们的感受各不相同。发礼物能让一些人快乐。带人出去吃饭能让一些人快乐。也就是说，友情和交际能让人快乐。但是，我们现在说的是义务， 帮助困境中的人是一种义务。这是很具体的例子。

Richard Bourke: Kant’s point is as follows: If you do that merely out of how you feel at time T-4… Today you might feel enormously sympathetic, tomorrow maybe not. Some people are depressed. They don't feel very sympathetic at all. Some people have had a really bad life. Kant is very keen to avoid moral luck. He's very keen to argue that it's not a matter of the accidents of your sensibility.

理查德·伯克：康德的观点是这样的，如果你帮助别人仅仅是出于你当时的感受……那么可能今天你非常同情别人，明天就不同情了。有些人很郁郁寡欢。他们根本不会同情别人。有些人本身已经过得很惨了。康德热衷于避免道德运气。他热衷于论证道德不是你的感觉导致的偶然事件。

Richard Bourke: Some people have a brutalized life. We cannot blame them because they're not feeling so buoyant with the joys of springs such that they go around sprinkling gifts upon strangers. So, he wants to say, “Exactly. That cannot be a norm. But we cannot, we can ask ourselves the question, Am I contributing to charity because that's right to do, or is it simply because it makes me feel good?” So there is a concrete example.

理查德·伯克：有些人很无情。我们不能怪他们，因为他们没有感觉到春天的喜悦，所以不会因此而到处给陌生人发礼物。康德想说：“这不能成为一种规范。但是我们可以问自己一个问题，我做慈善是因为这样做是对的，还是仅仅因为这样做让我感觉良好？”这就是个具体的例子。

Zachary Davis: So, this would be to say, you know, your cousin who blesses the lives of everyone, they were born that way. They love serving and caring and giving. But actually, she does it for the praise of everyone else because she likes to be esteemed. And then my uncle, who’s surly and depressed and was abused, when he calls gruffly and says, “How's it going,” but he willed that, he's more moral than the cousin?

扎卡里·戴维斯：假如说，你有个表姐，她会祝福所有人，喜欢为人服务，喜欢关心别人，喜欢付出。但实际上，她这样做是为了得到大家的赞美，因为她喜欢被人尊敬的感觉。而我有个舅舅，脾气暴躁，郁郁寡欢，被人虐待，他会粗声粗气地打电话说“你还好吗”，但这是他真实的想法，那么我舅舅比你表姐更道德吗？

Richard Bourke: For sure. First of all, you had her doing it because she seeks praise. As far as Kant is concerned, either she's not seeking any praise, but it makes her feel good because she's, you know, gift giving can be a pleasure, you know. So, it can be just for the pleasure of the sympathy. It doesn't have to be for the pleasure of the, it doesn't have to be the amour-propre, as it were. It doesn't have to be the regard you get in the eyes of others.

理查德·伯克：当然了。首先，你说了表姐这么做是因为她想获得赞美。在康德看来，或者表姐并不是为了获得赞美，而是这让她感觉良好，因为送礼可以是一种乐趣。所以，表姐可能只是为了享受同情带来的愉悦感，不一定是为了获得别人的尊重。

Richard Bourke: He does not believe that moral action is derived by simply rationally restraining all your instincts and your inclinations. You cannot not have inclinations. You are still a sensible animal, and no part of you could avoid pursuing happiness. That is just, as it were, in the DNA of the human being. We are pursuing happiness all the time. His point is that you must always check that. So, if you want to know if this course to happiness is correct, you act, you ask, are you doing it from duty?

理查德·伯克：康德不认为道德行为是通过简单地理性克制你所有的本能和倾向而产生的。你不可能没有倾向。你仍然是有理智的，不可避免要追求幸福。这是与生俱来的。我们一直在追求幸福。康德的观点是，你必须时刻核查。如果你想知道这条通往幸福的路是否正确，就问你自己，你的所作所为是出于义务吗？

Zachary Davis: Kant believes that when you act from reason and not inclination, you act morally. This is what he calls acting from duty. But lots of other philosophers took issue with this idea.

扎克里·戴维斯：康德认为，当你根据理性而非喜好行事时，你的行为是合乎道德的。这就是他所说的出于义务的行为。但是，很多哲学家都对此观点表示异议。

Richard Bourke: I mean, many critics of Kant say that the formalism of Kantian morality is empty. It's vacuous. So, you act, you do the dutiful thing by acting out of duty. And what’s duty? You're still left with this empty content in the end.

理查德·伯克：康德的批评者们认为，康德道德哲学是空洞的形式主义。也就是说，你为义务而义务，那么义务是什么呢？最后还是剩下这种空洞的内容。

Zachary Davis: Kant expands on this in several formulations.

扎克里·戴维斯：康德通过几个法则对此进行了阐述。

Richard Bourke: One of the formulations is called the formulation of humanity, and that is stated as follows. “So act that the maxim of your action involves treating others, other people, never merely as a means, but always also as an end.” So, now that you have a value, you can't treat other people instrumentally. Right?

理查德·伯克：其中一个法则叫做“人性法则”，具体描述为：“你对待人的行为准则是把他人或自己当作目的，而非仅仅是手段。”既然你有了价值，就不能把他人当作手段了，对吗？

Richard Bourke: So, now we began with, well, this just sort of vacuous abstraction of “duty is duty for the sake of duty.” But the duty that is duty for the sake of duty is also including not treating other people merely as means. Instead, the full formulation is—I mean, it is the way I put it, but people often phrase it as “treat people as ends not means”. It's not “treat people as ends, not means”, it's “treat people always also as ends, never merely as means”.

理查德·伯克：我们先讲“义务是为了义务而义务”这一抽象概念。这一概念也包括不要把他人仅仅当作手段，在我看来这法则完整的表述是这样的，不过人们常常把这一公式表述为“把人当作目的而不是手段”。其实并非“把人当作目的，而不是手段”，而是“必须常常把人当作目的，而不仅仅是手段”。

Richard Bourke: Because, of course, we have to treat people as means in life. I mean, you know, I buy things from you. We exchange, we do use each other. But it's never merely, I’m never merely treating you as a means. I see, my humanity includes recognizing that you have human characteristics, that you're a human being. And that is a fundamental—so, that is the foundation really of morality, seeing that other human beings are sites of self-regulating freedom.

理查德·伯克：当然，在生活中我们必须把人当作手段。比如说，我从你手中买东西。我们做交易，确实是在利用对方。但绝非如此，我不仅仅是把你当作手段。我的人性包括承认你有人类的特征，承认你是一个人。而这才是道德真正的基础，看到其他人是自律自由的表现。

Zachary Davis: When Kant published Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals in 1785, it was immediately well received. By this point, Kant had already made a name for himself as a respectable philosopher. This text quickly became one of the most important philosophical texts of his time, and its influence extends to today.

扎克里·戴维斯：康德的《道德形而上学奠基》在1785年出版，随即受到好评。那时，康德已经以一个受人尊敬的哲学家自居。这部作品很快成为他那个时代最重要的哲学文本之一，其影响力延续至今。

Zachary Davis: How has it made a mark in our world? How has it changed things that we recognize today?

扎克里·戴维斯：这部作品是如何影响世界的？它是如何改变了我们今天所认识到的事物？

Richard Bourke: People did try to critically engage, but he also very rapidly had followers. So, the neo-Kantian tradition starts immediately. The critics, though, included some extraordinary figures themselves, including three students who were together in a stiftung, a theological seminary in Tübingen in the 1790s, and their names are Schelling and Hegel and Hölderlin, the poet. But the poet also took an interest in philosophy, and all three of them became some sort of species of neo-Kantian.

理查德·伯克：人们的确尝试带着批判的眼光了解此书，康德也迅速拥有了很多追随者。新康德主义由此迅速发展。不过，批判者也不乏一些杰出人物，其中包括1790年代在图宾根神学院就读的三名学生：谢林、黑格尔和荷尔德林。荷尔德林是一位诗人，但是他也对哲学产生了兴趣，后来他们三个人都不同程度发展了新康德主义。

Richard Bourke: They were students of theology together in southern Germany in the early days of the sort of Kantian frenzy. So, he was the biggest story in town. And so they got down to studying him.

理查德·伯克：在早期的康德主义狂热中，他们一起在德国南部学习神学。康德是镇上最大的焦点。于是他们就开始研究他。

Zachary Davis: These three students of Kant were not students in the sense that they studied directly with him. They were more like followers of his. The most influential was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a German philosopher and the most important figure in German idealism. And the most important follower of Hegel was Karl Marx, the great theorist of communism.

扎克里·戴维斯：这三位康德的学生并不是直接跟他学习的学生。他们更像是他的追随者。他们中影响力最大的是德国哲学家，也是德国唯心主义最重要的人物——格奥尔格·威廉·弗里德里希·黑格尔。而黑格尔最重要的追随者是伟大的共产主义理论家卡尔·马克思。

Richard Bourke: So, the legacy of Kant to that extent is so not what one would have spontaneously recognized if one went through the subsequent history of moral philosophy, because that's normally told as a story of subsequent to Kant, there is the rise of utilitarianism, and subsequent to that there is the rise of intuitionism in the early 20th century British moral thought.

理查德·伯克：所以说，在某种程度上，一个人在回顾道德哲学的历史时，不太可能自发意识到康德的思想遗产。因为通常道德哲学的历史是从康德之后开始讲述的，功利主义兴起，紧随其后的是直觉主义在20世纪早期英国道德思想中兴起。

Richard Bourke: So, that's the normal, you know, studying philosophy as an undergraduate, that's the sort of path that one carves out, but actually the path of Kantianism is through Hegelianism. So, there are these indirect roots. Otherwise, if one doesn't recognize that subsequent German neo-Kantian, neo-Hegelian tradition, one would be left with really the revival of Kant’s moral thought in the latter part of the 20th century.

理查德·伯克：所以正常来说，本科生学习哲学的时候虽然学的是一种思想学说，但实际上是通过黑格尔主义了解康德主义。的确，这些间接的根源是存在的。否则，如果不承认后来的德国新康德主义、新黑格尔主义，就真的只能看到在20世纪后半期复兴的康德道德思想。

Zachary Davis: Since 1945, there's been, you know, this enormous, many waves of liberation. Colonial territories, various minorities within Western societies, different expressions of gender, race, sexuality, etc. Do you think there's a link between these efforts at liberation and freedom to some of Kant's theories of morality?

扎克里·戴维斯：自1945年以来，解放浪潮此起彼伏。例如殖民地领土、西方社会内部的各种弱势群体，性别、种族、性取向等不同的表现形式。你认为这些为解放和自由所做的努力与康德的一些道德理论之间有联系吗？

Richard Bourke: I think there's two things worth saying. First of all, Kant, through his albeit highly complex reception, does permeate our culture. I mean, just the very phrase “don't treat people merely as ends”, you know, certainly prominent in in feminist doctrine, and one source there would obviously be de Beauvoir who was influenced by Hegel, who is, as I said, a species of neo-Kantian. So, one can do some charting there.

理查德·伯克：我认为有两件事值得一说。首先，尽管康德的学说很复杂，但确实渗透到我们的文化中。仅仅是“不要把人仅仅当作目的”这句话在女权主义学说中很重要，其中一个来源显然是深受黑格尔影响的德·波伏娃。正如我所说，她也是新康德主义者之一。因此，我们可以看到她的学说的依据。

Richard Bourke: But there's also the extent to which, as actually Hegel would put it, Kant was, in a very sophisticated way, registering some of the cultural shifts of modern European society altogether. So, you know, there's a sense in which Kant is a natural development of Protestantism in the age of the French Revolution, you know. So, the idea of prescribing norms to oneself is the sort of very foundation of the French Constitutionalist Revolution. Yeah, “we are now going to give a constitution to ourselves” is a sort of political equivalent of “we are morally going to give norms to ourselves”.

理查德·伯克：不过在另一方面，正如黑格尔所说，康德以一种非常复杂的方式，阐释了现代欧洲社会的文化变迁。因此，在某种意义上，康德主义是新教在法国大革命时代的自然发展。法国大革命的基础是“自己制定规范”。没错，政治上的“我们现在要给自己一部宪法”就等同于“我们要在道德上给自己一套规范”。

Richard Bourke: So, that's, you know, a 1789 moment of self-determination. And self-determination, in a way, is another way of phrasing the Kantian term “autonomy”, and the two of them—autonomy and self-determination—capture a lot of modern cultural movements, just as you're saying. Of course, there is a big problem now, which is at which point does self-determination and/or autonomy devolve into merely “the things I want”?

理查德·伯克：1789年法国面临自决的问题。在某种程度上，“自决”是康德术语“自治”的另一种表述方式。像你说的，很多现代文化运动都体现了自治和自决。当然，现在有一个很大的问题，那就是在什么情况下自决或者说自主会退化成仅仅是“我想要的东西”？

Zachary Davis: For Kant, acting from this place would not result in moral actions. And without Kant, we might not have the tools to measure our actions against morality.

扎克里·戴维斯：对康德而言，以此为目的的行为不是有道德的行为。而如果没有康德，我们可能没有工具来衡量我们的行为与道德。

Richard Bourke: This text changed the world by obliging modern philosophical culture to rethink what the foundations of human value are, first of all, and second of all, to populate that question with a specific core value: the value of humanity or, otherwise known as, treating other peoples as always ends, never merely as means.

理查德·伯克：这部作品改变了世界，首先，它迫使现代哲学文化重新思考人类价值的基础。其次，它用一个特定的核心价值来回答这个问题，即人性的价值，或者说是“总是把人当作目的，而不是仅仅是手段”。

Zachary Davis: Writ Large is a production of Ximalaya. Writ Large is produced by Jack Pombriant, Liza French, and me, Zachary Davis. Script editing is by Galen Beebe. We get help from Feiran Du, Ariel Liu and Monica Zhang. Our theme song is by Ian Coss. Don’t miss an episode. Subscribe today in the Ximalaya app. Thanks for listening. See you next time.

扎卡里·戴维斯：本节目由喜马拉雅独家制作播出。感谢您的收听，我们下期再见！